Agradecimentos: C. Cowell (RBG Kew) provided information on Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool assessments and monitoring and K. Freeman (Madagascar Fauna and Flora Group) provided information on invasive vertebrates. A. Rauhaus (Cologne Zoo) as well as J. Kamphausen and L. Leiss (both of the University of Cologne) supported the zoo database analyses. I. Voet illustrated the graphical abstract. J. P. G. Jones (Bangor University) contributed to discussions that shaped and improved the analyses and text. We thank J. Aronson (Missouri Botanical Garden), D. Ashley (UK Ambassador to Madagascar and Comoros), A. Lehavana (Missouri Botanical Garden), J. Ratsimbazafy (Houston Zoo and the Groupe d’Etude et de Recherche sur les Primates de Madagascar), S. Ratsirahonana (Fondation pour les Aires Protégées et la Biodiversité de Madagascar), and G. E. Schatz (Missouri Botanical Garden) for their insightful feedback on the first full draft of the manuscript as well as three anonymous reviewers for valuable feedback. We stress that all views expressed in this article are only those of the authors. Funding: A.A. acknowledges financial support from the Swedish Research Council (2019-05191), the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (FFL15-0196), and a grant from the Kew Foundation. T.A. was supported by the SciLifeLab & Wallenberg Data Driven Life Science Program, grant no. KAW 2020.0239. C.D.B. and M.F.T.J. were supported by a grant from the Swedish Research Council to C.D.B., grant no. 2017-04980. F.B. was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, grant no. PD/BD/128493/2017. J.B., J.H., S.P., and B.E.W. were supported by a Future Leader Fellowship from RBG Kew. N.A.C. was financed by H2020 MSCA-ITN-ETN Plant.ID, a European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement no. 765000. J.D.C. was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation, grant nos. P400PB_186733 and P4P4PB_199187. A.C. was supported by Portuguese National Funds through the Foundation for Science and Technology, FCT, grant no. 2020.00823.CEECIND and project PTDC/BIA-EVL/31254/2017. G.D. was supported by Vinnova, grant no. 2019-02717. D.E. was supported by the Swedish Research Council, grant no. 2016-00796, and the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, grant no. FFL15-0196. S.F. was supported by the Swedish Research Council, grant no. 2017-03862. B.L.F. was supported by the National Science Foundation, grant no. DEB-1655076. P.d.L.F. was supported by the MEMOVA project, EU Operational Programme Research, Development and Education, grant no. CZ.02.2.69/0.0/0.0/18_053/0016982. T.B.G. is supported by a young researcher grant from São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP, #2021/07161-6, #2022/09428-2), Brazil. M.C.H. and R.H. are Natural Environment Research Council–funded Ph.D. students with the London NERC DTP (NERC ref. no. NE/L002485/1). P.M.-M. was funded by the Czech Science Foundation, grant no. GJ20-18566Y. B.N. was supported by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, Brasil (CAPES) (PDSE 88881.132750/2016-01). R.E.O. acknowledges the support of iDiv funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG–FZT 118, 202548816). A.S.T.P. was supported by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), grant no. NE/R001081/1. L.N.P. was supported by a Swiss National Science Foundation Early Postdoc Mobility Grant, grant no. P2LAP2_187745. M.R.-H. was supported by a beca de doctorado del Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad, Chile; Programa de Doctorado en Biología y Ecología Aplicada, Universidad Católica del Norte, Universidad de La Serena, La Serena, Chile and an ANID National Scholarship (grant no. 21181931); and the Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (project ANID FB210006). E.R. was supported by the NRF/SASSCAL (Southern African Science Service Centre), grant no. 118589, and the NRF/African Origins Platform, grant no. 117666. F.S. was supported by European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement, grant no. 838998. D.S. received funding from the Swiss National Science Foundation (PCEFP3_187012) and from the Swedish Research Council (VR: 2019-04739). M.S.V. was supported by a GBIF: Biodiversity Information for Development grant. K.W. was supported by a Techne Arts and Humanities Research Council Doctoral Training Partnership. P.W. was supported by the Darwin Initiative, grant nos. 22-005 and EIDPO049 Ver menos

Abstract: Madagascar's unique biota is heavily affected by human activity and is under intense threat. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on the conservation status of Madagascar's terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity by presenting data and analyses on documented and predicted species-level conservation statuses, the most prevalent and relevant threats, ex situ collections and programs, and the coverage and comprehensiveness of protected areas. The existing terrestrial protected area network in Madagascar covers 10.4% of its land area and includes at least part of the range of the majority of described native species of vertebrates with known distributions (97.1% of freshwater fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals combined) and plants (67.7%). The overall figures are higher for threatened species (97.7% of threatened vertebrates and 79.6% of threatened plants occurring within at least one protected area). International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List assessments and Bayesian neural network analyses for plants identify overexploitation of biological resources and unsustainable agriculture as the most prominent threats to biodiversity. We highlight five opportunities for action at multiple levels to ensure that conservation and ecological restoration objectives, programs, and activities take account of complex underlying and interacting factors and produce tangible benefits for the biodiversity and people of Madagascar Ver menos